X – Ray Films Radiograph: Is the image of an object made with use of X- ray
instead of light. Dental x- ray film: Is a recording media on which image of the object was made
by exposing this film to X- ray. Types of X- ray film
a- Intra oral X- ray film. b- Extra oral 

The maintenance of a relatively constant volume and a stable composition of the body fluids is essential for homeostasis. Some of the most common and important problems in clinical medicine arise because of abnormalities in the control systems that maintain this constancy of the body fluids.

A human physiology lab is a place for studying how the 
human body functions through experiments and research, focusing 
on organs, tissues, and systems like respiratory, cardiovascular, 
muscular, and nervous. It uses tools like 
- ECGs, 
- Spirometers, 
- Blood pressure monitors 
To measure physiological parameters, aiding in understanding 
homeostasis and body responses to stimulus.
Routine physiology testing is including complete blood count 
(CBC), blood differential, blood smear, PCV, ESR, Urinalysis, 

Class II restoration involves the proximal (mesial or distal) surfaces of premolars and molars. It termed MO; mesioocclusal, DO; disto-occlusal, or MOD; mesio-occluso-distally cavity. Outline of proximal preparations is controlled by the following factors: 1.Caries susceptibility of the patient 2.Age of the patient. 3.Position of gingiva 4.Extent of the caries on the proximal side 5.Dimensions of the contact area 6.Masticatory forces 7.Esthetic requirement of the patient................

Criteria for special tray construction 

Second Stage 

5. lecture 

Tooth cavity preparations for amalgam and composites have some differences. These differences varies from preparing good undercut to provide good retention for the amalgam filling to roughening the cavity walls to enhance composite filling’s adhesion to the dentine. All of these differences are listed in the following table......................